What is Politics?

Origin of the Word /Concept

 The word 'politics' is derived from the Greek word 'Polis' which means 'City-state'. The Greeks regarded the 'Polis' as the most meaningful organisation of persons within their political and socio-cultural milieu/relations - for they practised what is today known as classical democracy.

A Definition of Politics - Whether Necessary?

The idea of a definition of politics have been a controversial one with some scholars approving of it on the one hand and others disapproving of it on the other. However, Schattschneider have said that:

              

               "There is something strange about the feeling of scholars that a definition

               is not necessary. Inevitably, there is a lack of focus in the discipline 

               because it is difficult to see things that are undefined. People who cannot

               define the object of their studies do not know what they are looking for,

               and if they do not know what they are looking for, how can they tell when

               they have found it?

Some Definitions By Scholars

It is because of this feeling of a necessity for the definition of politics that we now have a gamut of definition for the concept of politics which include:

'...the authoritative allocation of values for a society' - David Easton.

'...who gets what, when and how' - Harold Laswell

'...all intersections and dispositions which are directly/indirectly aimed at or actually succeed in obtaining binding decisions about who have desired resources (or who do not); and when and how these are obtained, in any enduring social system' - E. Nwabuzor and M. Mueller .

Aristotle's View About Politics

For Aristotle (who first used the term politics in his book POLITICS to refer to the affairs of a Greek City-State), 'man by nature is a political animal'. He observed that whenever men seek to define their position  in society or as they attempt to achieve personal security from available resources and as they try to influence others to accept their points of view, they find themselves engage in politics and this in a broad sense makes everyone a politician.

Discussion

First, it must be noted that the term politics in spite of all these verbal expenditure and many more given by several scholars in the field of political science, has no universally acceptable definition just like other social concepts.

However, it must be observed from the above and I posit  that a definition of the concept  is necessary to guide the political scientist in his search for what politics actually is and its objectives . For to refuse a definition of politics would be like throwing a pebble into a place filled with a thousand of them while at the same time calling for other individuals to go in search of it without giving them a description of the desired pebble, such that like Schattschneider says, they would not only be ignorant of the so-desired pebble, but cannot as well tell when they have it in their hands due to their said ignorance, thereby leading to an effort in futility.

So, to tell the political scientist not to define his subject would be to let him embark on an impossible mission which end is already known and that is futility and confusion.

A Major Condition Necessary for Politics

The  use of the concept Politics presupposes the existence of an organised society of persons who are involved in some form of relations that has to do with power and influence that is connected with how the limited but valuable resources of the society are allocated between such individuals/groups making up such a community of persons or union.

What Politics is and What its Study is about

I want to submit that Politics can be seen as the study of power relations and influence as between individuals and or groups within a given community of organised persons who are involved in some recognizable and continuous relationships that involves the creation of influence, its manipulation and use to determine and allocate the limited but valued resources of such a community amongst such individuals/groups making-up the community.

This presupposes (as aforementioned) that such individuals must be organised and having such rules as are considered binding on them which would as well spell out how recognised influence is generated and or gotten by individuals within the society - including the relationships between them; how it can be used/manipulated; also such things as must be considered valuable by them (which varies from one society to another); and finally, how these are to be shared amongst them. How all these take place through the interactions of the different kinds of influence and power as are wielded by different individuals/groups within the community/union at different times is what the study of politics tries to unravel. 

OHALETEM EZEUGO EMMANUEL
(Faculty of Law, University of Benin, Benin-City, Edo State, Nigeria.) 

Macbeth As A Classical Tragedy

Examining Macbeth – As A Classical Tragedy

INTRODUCTION

Tragedy has been defined as the presentation of serious/important actions which turn out disastrously for the protagonist/chief character.

Further, a classical tragedy according to Aristotle in his book, Poetics, (representing the classical view of tragedy) must have the following features:
- a plot with the three unities of time, place and action.
- characters used in tragedies must be of noble birth.
- the use of elevated/enhanced language
- There must also be the arousal of pity and fear which dose not violate our human emotions.

PLOT AND SETTING

Shakespeare’s Macbeth is about a General in the Scottish Army(Macbeth – our protagonist and hero) whose “vaulting ambition” premised on the prophecies of some metaphysical creatures (three witches) causes him to murder his loving, trusting and kind king (Duncan) in order to gain control of the realms of power (the kingdom of Scotland). However, in the end, nemesis catches up with him as he and his chief-partner in crime (his wife) pay dearly for it, even as the kingdom is restored to one of the late king’s son in the person of Malcolm.

According to Aristotle, a classical tragedy must have as one of its features, the presence of the three unities of time, place and action. That is, all the actions in the play must occur within twenty-four hours – one day. In addendum, all the actions would as well have to take place in one geographical entity (place) and finally, all the actions in a play must occur in one piece. So, in Shakespeare’s Macbeth, all the actions take place in Scotland, except for Act 4, Scene 3 which takes place in England. This of course is because of William Shakespeare’s opinion and which is true that life is not as unified as Aristotle presented it. Also note that all actions in Shakespeare’s Macbeth occur in one piece.

However, Shakespeare’s Macbeth does not follow the rule of the unity of time as the events in the play quite well exceed 24 hours as seen in the Doctor’s speech. See Act 5, Scene 1, Line 1 (5,1,1).

THE USE OF NOBLE CHARACTERS

Shakespeare’s Macbeth in conformity with the classical idea of tragedy makes use of characters of noble birth. Here, we see characters such as Duncan (the king of Scotland); his two sons Donalbain and Malcolm – princes of Scotland; Macduff; Ross, Lennox, etc and even Macbeth himself – all thanes of Scotland, with Macbeth later ascending to the throne of Scotland.

These characters are not just noble of birth, but as well in virtues. See the excerpt below describing Duncan per Macbeth:

…Besides, this Duncan
Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been
So clear in his great office, that his virtues
Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongu’d, against
The deep damnation of his taking-off;
And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
Striding the blast, or heaven’s cherubin, hors’d
Upon the sightless couriers of the air,
Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye,
That tears shall drown the wind. I have no spur
To prick the sides of my intent, but only
Vaulting ambition, which o’er-leaps itself
And falls on the other.
(1,7,16-28)

Also see Lady Macbeth’s comment on Macbeth in 1,5,14-29.

So, Shakespeare’s Macbeth in this respect again conforms to the classical ideals of tragedy.

THE USE OF ELEVATED/ENHANCED LANGUAGE

This is also all too-clear as seen in Shakespeare’s Macbeth where we see a highly elevated/enhanced use of language loaded with much imagery, sound and meaning conforming to the classical views of tragedy. Such words as “augment” (2,1,27); “clear” (2,1,28); “born franchised” (2,1,28); “stirring” (2,3,45); take on the elevated/enhanced meanings of “increase”; “loyal”; “heart from guilt”; and “awake”; respectively. Also consider the expression below:

Fair is foul, and foul is fair;
Hover through the fog and filthy air.
(1,1,11-12)

Now, one would wonder how fair can become foul and also about the possibility of the reverse. However, this is a classical example of the beauty of the enhanced form of language as often used in classical tragedies to, among other things, capture the minds of the readers/audience and also generally improve sound and meaning – as words leave their denotative levels and get connotative constructions.

In other words, we find a lot of words and expressions being elevated/ enhanced beyond their normal meaning which more often than not, enhance the imagery, sound and meaning in the play.

We also find the words of the characters in verse form which all accords with the classical prescriptions for tragedies.

THE AROUSAL OF PITY AND FEAR

The arousal of pity and fear is also present in Shakespeare’s Macbeth. For example, as we picture Macbeth – our tragic hero- going to murder his cousin and king –Duncan to whom he owes three levels of allegiance, i.e. that of a “kinsman”, “subject” and a “host”, pity is aroused for the unsuspecting king Duncan whom we see has an unreserved love and trust for Macbeth who then betrays this trust because of his “vaulting ambition”. See generally 1,7,12-28.

This, as a matter of fact, also generates fear in the heart of the audience/readers as we are made to understand that we cannot trust anybody, not even our close associates/friends, or relatives.

We further pity Macduff whose family and all that belonged to him are murdered by Macbeth for no just cause. This also on the other hand makes us fear our friends and what ill they can do to us – with such useful pieces of information they may have about us which are not normally revealed to others by us. For in Shakespeare’s Macbeth, we discover that Macduff was in good terms with Macbeth before falling out of favour and it is because his place of abode is known to Macbeth that he (Macbeth) is able to set spies around him and also successfully waste his family as soon as he flees Scotland for England in the play. See generally 4,2 and 4,3,204-219.

We finally pity Macbeth (the protagonist and hero of the play) whose hubris causes his downfall despite his initial courage and bragging. We see him finally admit his fears even in his final moments. On the other hand, through the play’s general lesson of “it does not pay to do evil and that evil doers would surely pay for their sins”, fear again is aroused in our hearts as evil doers are warned of their evil doings – since of course, they would have to pay for their sins even here on earth and beyond. See generally, 5,7,30-63 and the excerpt below:

…But in these cases,
We still have judgment here…
(1,7,7-8)

So, in conformity with the classical ideals of tragedy as opposed to modern view(s) of tragedy, Shakespeare’s Macbeth as a play both generate fear and pity that does not violate human emotions in the hearts/minds of the readers or audience as the case may be.

CONCLUSION

Finally, we can say that though there are little variations as to the form, Shakespeare’s Macbeth to a large extent conform to and indeed is a classical tragedy. This is because there is a plot that to a great extent follows the rules concerning the three unities of time, place and action; the characters are noble; there is the use of elevated/enhanced language and finally, there is the arousal of pity and fear which does not violate our human emotions.

Also note that the events/actions in the play turn out disastrously for the protagonist/chief character in the person of Macbeth.

Further note that it is no tragedy where a man kills his enemy or when people die out of a natural disaster, etc, as it tragedy only when the death of someone or something is caused by someone or something he was or is in good relationship with. Therefore, in Shakespeare’s Macbeth, we see the characters die at the hands of those whom they formerly loved and or still love.

OHALETEM EZEUGO EMMANUEL
(University of Benin, Benin-City, Edo State, Nigeria.)